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Walter Burroughs

HDML 1321 and what she represents

Java is heaven, Burma is hell but you never come back alive from New Guinea – Japanese wartime saying

An eagle-eyed member of our Society drew attention to this short news story appearing in his local paper, the Northern Territory News, dated 3 November 2016.

News that the historic Rushcutter may be left to rot on the bottom of Darwin harbour is saddening to say the least. The boat, formerly known as HDML 1321, is an integral part of not just the Territory’s past but the nation’s. Its history is remarkable. Built with Huon pine before the Second World War [she was built in 1943 – Ed.], it played a crucial part in Australia’s battles with the Japanese.

It provided vital support for missions around New Guinea, including a mission which involved launching four folding kayaks with eight Z Special commandos into the Bismarck Sea. Documentaries have been made about the audacious mission and the HDML 1321 played a key role. Ironically, it was also involved in a recent plot by alleged “wannabe” Australian terrorists to use it to get to Syria.

For years it worked as a harbour defence vessel in Sydney and was renamed the HMAS Rushcutter before being sold to private owners.

The boat’s links with the extreme sacrifice made by our army and navy deem it worthy to be held in pristine condition in a museum or the Australian War Memorial — not at the bottom of the ocean. The only thing keeping this boat from re-emerging is money. The owners need $50,000 to raise it but seem unable to pay that amount. They are asking the Port’s owners, Landbridge, to fork out for the salvage mission but the Australian War Memorial should also not stand idly by and let a piece of Australian history disappear.

In its time, the boat provided valuable reconnaissance information which helped save Australian lives. It is time to return the favour to this historic old boat and pull it from its watery grave.

Motor Launches and Harbour Defence Motor Launches

With the emergence of WWII the Royal Australian Navy was desperately short of patrol craft resulting in the introduction the British ‘Fairmile B’ Motor Launches (MLs). They were designed by car manufacturer and Royal Naval Volunteer Officer, Noel Macklin, who lived in Fairmile, near Cobham in Surrey.

Twenty launches were prefabricated in the United Kingdom for assembly at the Green Point shipyard on the Parramatta River. A further fifteen vessels were built by local boat-builders Lars Halvorsen at Ryde in Sydney and Norman Wright at Bulimba in Brisbane. These craft were augmented by a further twenty-eight similar but smaller vessels known as Harbour Defence Motor Launches (HDMLs). Most were supplied from American (16) and British (3) boat-builders and shipped as deck cargo, but nine boats were constructed in Australia by various local yards.

The first of the motor launches to arrive was HDML 1074 which had previously briefly seen service with the Royal Navy. She was shipped out in MV Port Auckland and commissioned into the RAN on 7 October 1942 under the command of Lieutenant Norman Grieve, RANVR. HDML 1074 and her two English sisters retained their RN pennant number while serving in the RAN. Grieve joined the RAN under the Dominion Yachtsman Scheme and after initial training in England was posted to the 6th Motor Launch Flotilla serving against the enemy in the North Sea where he received a commendation for bravery. Because of his wartime experience he was brought back home to take command of the first RAN ship of this type.

In his memoir A Merciful Journey young Sub Lieutenant Marsden Hordern, when at Brisbane in ML 814, provides an account of what life must have been like in these small vessels, he wrote:

One day HDML 1074 arrived from Port Moresby under the command of Lieutenant Norman Grieve, RANVR; she had seen hard service in New Guinea, had crossed the Coral Sea in bad weather, and was salt-stained, leaking badly, and everything below deck – dirty clothes, wet oilskins and bedding – smelt of sweat and mildew. Her crew – half-naked, with flowing unkempt hair and beards – looked like a bunch of pirates. To my impressionable eye they had an enviable buccaneering aura, and from that time I cherished a vision of achieving such a swashbuckling image.

 Marsden Hordern, one of the few remaining stalwarts from this era, went on to have a successful career in command of ML 1347, says he was in awe of the older and experienced Norman Grieve, whom he later came to know quite well. MLs were small and uncomfortable, where even hardened sailors could not always avoid sea sickness. In rough weather cooking was impossible and working in the engine room almost unbearable. Despite all these hardships they were well built, and when well led, their young crews were generally a happy bunch with pride in their small ships.

The first motor launch to be constructed in Australia was HDML 1321 (she also had the distinction of being the last in RAN service) which was built largely of Huon pine by Purdon & Featherstone in Hobart. She was laid down on 24 July 1942 and commissioned on 11 November 1943 under the command of the now experienced Lieutenant Norman Grieve, RANVR. His First Lieutenant in his new command was Sub Lieutenant Ambrose E (Ernie) Palmer, RANVR.

HDML 1321 building in Hobart 1943.  RAN image

After commissioning, HDML 1321 proceeded to Williamstown, Victoria, before continuing passage via Sydney, Brisbane and Townsville to Milne Bay, New Guinea, arriving there on 1 February 1944. Here she was placed under the operational control of the Supervising Intelligence Officer North Eastern Area with orders to conduct special wireless telegraphy intelligence work and support Allied Intelligence Bureau (AIB) personnel and Australian Coastwatchers operating behind enemy lines. The vessel had been especially modified for clandestine work and her appearance was visibly different to others of her class. The most striking feature was her bridge superstructure which was extended aft, making her look more like an island trader.

Shortly after arriving in New Guinea Lieutenant Grieve was posted ashore and Palmer assumed command of 1321. Ernie Palmer, now promoted Lieutenant, would not disappoint. The son of an ‘old soldier’ turned planter in the Solomon Islands, he had a wealth of local knowledge and had established himself as a trader, recruiter and diver. On first enlisting for wartime service Palmer had joined the Army and had served as a commando in small ships before transferring to the RAN. Sub Lieutenant Russel Smith joined as the First Lieutenant and his reflections provide an insight into his commanding officer and the nature of work involved:

Our captain was one of our country’s unsung heroes. He was totally fearless, leading his young charges with marvellous wisdom and skill. The vessel was unique in that it had been seconded to the AIB and we were allocated the duty of servicing the famous coastwatchers, taking in their food and equipment, bringing out their sick and so on. To do this we operated the whole time amongst the occupied islands in enemy waters. The Japanese used powerful barges and they were a constant hazard as they were armed with a 20 mm twin-barrelled pom-pom on a two-man mounting and were very accurate and dangerous. To counter the enemy menace, and with the help of our American friends, we armed our vessel in an unorthodox way. We added two automatic 37 mm cannons plus four 0.5-inch heavy machine guns to back up our 40 mm Bofors, 20 mm Oerlikon and four rapid fire .303 machine guns.

 Model maker and HDML aficionado, Roger Pearson, has been most helpful in providing background on these vessels.

The Guns of Muschu

Throughout 1944 HDML 1321 operated from Milne Bay and landed at isolated settlements on the Huon Peninsula between Lae and Madang. In April 1945, Z-Special Unit used 1321 in a mission, codenamed Operation COPPER. At Aitape she embarked eight operatives and their four Folboats (folding kayaks), taking them into enemy territory for a night landing on the island of Muschu near enemy-occupied Wewak. Muschu and Kairiru are adjacent islands lying off Cape Wom to the north of Wewak. Kairiru, the larger island, extends about 13 kms from east to west and 5 kms from north to south; it is mountainous with fertile volcanic soil. Its smaller sister Muschu is relatively flat and with many swamps is less fertile.

There were reports of two 140 mm (5.5-inch) naval guns on Muschu Island which had sufficient range to compromise planned Allied landings for the invasion of Wewak. The purpose of the mission was therefore to carry out reconnaissance of enemy strength on the islands, identify gun positions and, if possible, take a prisoner for further interrogation. Muschu and Kairiru were occupied by the Japanese in January 1942. St John’s Mission on Kairiru was requisitioned as naval headquarters with a nearby seaplane base, submarine and barge depot; at its peak it was occupied by 3,000 mainly naval personnel. In March 1944 the headquarters was severely damaged by American bombing. Caves, and many tunnels which were excavated, provided shelter from bombing attacks.

Map of Kairiru and Muschu Islands

Japanese forces operating out of Wewak were able to maintain supplies by using barges. This traffic was harassed by USN PT Boats, which in turn were attacked by enemy gun positions on Kairiru where it was believed there were at least two 75 mm gun batteries. These had been subjected to American bombing and bombardment by RAN ships, seemingly without success.

The insertion took place on the night of 11 April but it did not go according to plan. Although the eight operatives were successfully disembarked from 1321, their boats were swept south by strong currents. Three of the Folboats capsized after being caught in a shore break, losing a radio, two Sten-guns and a paddle. In spite of this setback, the group made it ashore, setting out immersed equipment – including their remaining radios – to dry, and then resting before continuing their mission. The following morning they encountered numerous unmanned defensive positions, including several heavy machine-guns which they dismantled and tossed into the sea. They then struck inland encountering a lone enemy soldier who was successfully captured, bound and gagged.

Although the Australian’s fortunes appeared to have changed for the better, the return trek to their temporary base camp proved otherwise. A wrong turn was taken and a Japanese patrol sighted. Taking cover in the jungle the patrol passed by but their captive was able to remove his gag calling out to his countrymen. The Z Unit were then forced to shoot their prisoner and engage the advancing enemy before breaking contact and retreating into the jungle.

Informal photograph of HDML 1321 with LSEA A Clayton, Stoker Jack Sevenoaks SBLT Russell Smith AB G Aitken and Sapper Mick Dennis           Ron Reynolds image

After regrouping and resting for a period they made their way back to their temporary base but observed the enemy waiting in ambush. A Japanese patrol had found the lost paddle washed ashore and were alerted to the landing of Australian commandos. After an intensive search the Folboats, hidden in undergrowth, were discovered, and then an ambush was set for the returning commandos.

At night the unit moved to a cliff overlooking the pre-determined rendezvous point for recovery by 1321. Without radios and their torches unusable (they were not waterproof and had been soaked on landing), they were unable to signal 1321 which frustratingly could be clearly heard cruising close inshore. In later testimony Lieutenant Palmer says they returned to the rendezvous for the next five nights searching for the commandos but with no evidence of survivors 1321 was ordered to return to base.

 The Log Rafts

At daybreak the survivors decided to construct a log raft with which they hoped would be sighted by the searching 1321 or reconnaissance aircraft. That night all eight men put to sea in their crude craft. Again they were caught in steep surf and the raft broke up, with all eight men being swept back ashore. All except one lost their weapons and packs. With the situation now becoming desperate a vote was taken on the best plan of escape. Four voted to try again but this time using individual logs, while the other four decided to go to the western end of the island, the shortest distance from the mainland, and attempt to swim the strait.

More recent computer generated calculations of the tidal drift for the period in question indicates that those on rafts may have been swept towards nearby Kairiru Island. After enlisting the help of ‘Missing in Action Australia’ a private expedition was organised to Kairiru in July 2010 by the late LTCOL Jim Bourke, AM, MG. From this expedition the fate of the men was determined and the location of two bodies found. The Australian Government War Casualties Unit then exhumed the remains of two men, which with the aid of forensic evidence and documentation in Government archives, indentified these as Corporal Spencer Walklate and Private Ronald Eagleton. The two were alive when washed ashore where they were captured and beheaded. Their remains were finally laid to rest with full military honours at the Port Moresby (Bomana) War Cemetery on 16 June 2014. Their old comrade Mick Dennis attended this service and nearly a year later, on 09 November 2015 at age 96, this grand old veteran died peacefully in his sleep.

The other two on log rafts, Lieutenants Alan Gubbay and Thomas Barnes were believed to have drowned and their bodies later washed ashore on Kairiru Island. These were found by natives and buried. The Bourke expedition, after questioning locals, determined that the bodies had been removed by an Australian Army unit in June 1946 and were buried in the Lae War Cemetery as ‘Soldiers known only to God’. They were later identified by DNA analysis and their graves marked accordingly.

 The Swimmers

On 14 April the remaining four men set out on foot, returning to their equipment cache where a radio was retrieved. They then headed for higher ground to set up the radio and hopefully make contact with the HDML. When approaching bomb craters where fresh water might be found, they ran into a Japanese patrol. In an exchange of fire two Japanese and three Australians (Sergeant Malcolm Weber and Signallers Michael Hagger and John Chandler) were killed. Sapper Edgar Thomas (Mick) Dennis then escaped into the jungle.  Alone, he continued on to Cape Samein killing another enemy soldier and destroying a heavy machine-gun on the way. After dusk on 17 April Dennis, who was a champion swimmer and wrestler (his sister Clare Dennis was an Olympic gold medallist swimmer), put to sea on a self made improvised surf board and drifted and swam for about ten hours to the mainland, some 5 km distant, landing in darkness at about 0400 the following morning. He was recovered by a patrol on the banks of the Hawain River on the afternoon of 20 April, nearly ten days after the initial insertion. In recognition of his actions, Dennis was later awarded the Military Medal for bravery in the field.

Insert photo: Informal photograph of HDML 1321 with L/SEA A Clayton, Stoker Jack Sevenoaks, SBLT Rusel Smith, AB G Aitken & Sapper Mick Dennis   –  Ron Reynolds

With news of Dennis’s survival two other MLs, 804 and 427, were immediately dispatched to search for any other survivors who may have escaped from Muschu, but this proved fruitless.

Sapper Mick Dennis wrote of his experiences in a diary which eventually passed to his nephew, Don Dennis, a retired Australian Army officer who had served in Vietnam. From this and interviews with his uncle, Don Dennis wrote of these events in The Guns of Muschu, published in 2006. Don Dennis has been most helpful in vetting much of the material used in this article.

The Naval Unit that Vanished in the Jungle

In January 1942 a young Japanese doctor who had just graduated was enlisted into the Imperial Japanese Navy as a Surgeon Sub Lieutenant. His name was Tetsuo Watanabe and luckily for posterity he also maintained a diary, and even more remarkably, because of his wartime experiences, this document survived. Many years later in 1982 this small volume was published in Japanese and, in 1995, was translated into English as The Naval Unit that Vanished in the Jungle. From this we are to gain a first-hand account of the Muschu venture, seen through Japanese eyes.

Watanabe was the last naval doctor to be posted to New Guinea, arriving from Rabaul by submarine I-181 in December 1943 at the Japanese base of Sio, strategically placed on the Huon Peninsula about half-way between Lae and Madang. He had been posted to the 82nd Naval Garrison which had landed in this area with 7,000 men in June 1942. His introduction was to a meeting of the headquarters group which was held in a cave. As the garrison was in danger of being cut off without the possibility of future supplies, he was told of the planned withdrawal from the area and, as they could not take sick or weak troops, his job was to select those fit enough for the trek northwards. On 23 December those of the 82nd Naval Garrison classified as fit were underway, traversing the inhospitable terrain of mountains, ravines, rain forests and swamps.

This was part of an overall push by the 18th Imperial Japanese Army to relocate to better positions further northward in New Guinea. Many died from starvation, disease and insanity, killing themselves or asking to be killed. They had to divide into small platoons to reduce the risk of further losses from constant air attacks. Exhausted, with depleted numbers, the survivors reached the relative safety of Madang on 18 February 1944, where they had their first decent meal in over two months. After recuperation the force was again on the move before Madang fell to the Allies in April and in early May they reached their next and final stronghold of Wewak1.

We were surprised to see a nice road made by the Army’s Road Construction Unit. But Wewak airfield on the left hand side was a frightful spectacle. It was totally destroyed by bombardment. Similarly countless remains of our ships were lying in the harbour. The night march of 30 kms was not so tiring, as it was cool and the road was good. We slept in native huts at Cape Wom.

When they had started off from Sio some four months earlier the Unit to which Tetsuo Watanabe was attached comprised 200 men. When they reached the end of their march at Cape Wom this was down to just three survivors – Lieutenant Kakiuchi, Petty Officer Wada and Dr Watanabe. The remainder, with thousands of others, had just vanished into the jungle. From Cape Wom they were transferred to a naval base on Kairiru Island lying a few miles offshore.

By this time Watanabe had developed severe malaria, jaundice and hepatitis and must have had some retinal detachment or haemorrhage in the right eye, as he lost sight in that eye. Watanabe was as well cared for by fellow surgeons as the circumstances permitted and gradually began to show signs of recovery. The Chief Surgeon at Kairiru requested Dr Watanabe’s return to Japan on the last submarine to call at the island on 27 May 1944, but this request was refused. Eventually, and now with one eye, Watanabe returned to his duties and again began treating patients.

In September 1944 the unit was moved and consolidated on the nearby Muschu Island. From here they could see American and Australian troops relaxing on the beach across the water on the mainland near Cape Wom. Although the Japanese on the islands were constantly bombed, their camouflaged and fortified camps were not located and no men were lost in these raids. With ever decreasing food supplies their greatest fear was dying of starvation.

There was only one case of direct contact between the opposing forces when eight Australians from Z Force landed on Muschu Island on 11 April 1945. In that operation (according to Japanese records) three Australians and three Japanese were killed and four other Australians drowned. Dr Watanabe treated the wounds of two injured Japanese soldiers who were shot during this incident, one of whom died and the other survived.

Rear Admiral Sato boards ML 805      AWM image

After news on 15 August 1945 that the Japanese Emperor had ordered the surrender of his forces and that the war was over, intelligence was received suggesting the garrison on Kairiru and Muschu Islands might be induced to surrender. Accordingly two RAN ships, MLs 805 and 809 circled these islands flying white flags from their mastheads and using a captured Japanese prisoner to broadcast surrender messages. This continued without results, and then suddenly on 17 August 1945, a small group of Japanese ventured onto a beach carrying a white flag. ML 805 lowered a boat with an Australian Army Intelligence Officer and an interpreter and a meeting was held on the beach. This was the first formal contact made during the war between Allied and Japanese forces in the South-West Pacific. As a result the Japanese garrison, comprising the 27th Naval Base Force, which was in radio contact with the overall commander of their forces on mainland New Guinea, Lieutenant General Adachi, was given permission to conclude a surrender agreement. On 10 September 1945 ML 805, with Major General Horace Robertson, Commander of the Australian 6th Division, embarked, proceeded to Kairiru Island where Rear Admiral Sato Shiro boarded and formally surrendered the approximately 800 mainly naval forces under his command on Muschu and Kairiru Islands.

Lieutenant General Hatazo Adachi later surrendered himself to the Australian command. He was flown to Wewak on 13 September 1945 where a formal surrender ceremony was conducted at Cape Wom after which he handed his sword to Major General Robertson. The surrender document was signed using the wardroom table taken from ML 805 which had been used for a similar purpose three days earlier. This historic table is now in the Australian War Memorial. Some fighting continued, as it took another two weeks for news to finally filter through to Japanese forces hiding in jungle retreats. MLs 805 and 809 were despatched to the Sepik River to advise natives and Japanese of the surrender. They proceeded on a remarkable feat of navigation, steaming 212 miles upstream encountering many Japanese living on friendly terms with villagers; many of the soldiers were sick and no resistance was offered.

After the surrender Muschu Island was used to detain Japanese POWs from the entire Wewak area. Many were sick and weak from disease. Of the estimated 11,000 to 12,000 prisoners held on the island less than 10,000 survived to return to Japan, but all survivors were repatriated by March 1946. In the Australian official war history it is estimated that more than 1,000 Japanese prisoners died during the march to, or on, Muschu Island because of malnutrition. This was not helped by a lack of food and medical supplies then available to both Australians and Japanese.

HMAS Rushcutter (HDML 1321) in Clarence River near Grafton 1965  RAN image

Marsden Hordern, then in command of ML 1347, visited Muschu Island a number of times when it was used as a prison camp as his ship was involved in ferrying POWs from the Sepik region to Muschu. He notes the Japanese had built a temporary hospital, a long thatched palm structure, with open sides built of local wood. Conditions in the hospital were horrific with many dead and dying, and burial parties constantly at work.

On 26 November 1945 the cruiser HMAS Shropshire was embarking Australian troops from Wewak for their return home. By coincidence on the same day, ML 1347 had the unusual task of leading the former Japanese cruiser Kashima to an anchorage off Muschu where she embarked 1,100 prisoners for return home. She made another voyage to Muschu on 8 January 1946, embarking an unspecified number of prisoners for a similar return to Japan. Kashima, which had been a flagship involved in the capture of New Guinea, was one of the few major Japanese naval ships afloat at the end of the war; with her armament removed she was converted into a transport and over the course of a year repatriated about 6,000 Japanese troops from around the Pacific to their homeland.

In 1969 a Japanese mission visited Kairiru Island and with the assistance of local people located and exhumed a large number of the remains of Japanese servicemen who had died here during and post WWII. The remains were cremated in accordance with Shinto faith ritual and the ashes returned to Japan. A small memorial was also built on the island.

A Canadian, Robert (Bob) Henderson, who lived in the Wewak area for three years, wrote of his interest in an article titled Beautiful Muschu Island – Japanese Hell. From stories told by locals he says Japanese POWs were left on the island with virtually no provisions; many perished before the survivors were repatriated some months later. He also notes that a landslide in 1976 revealed a cave where the remains of more Japanese were discovered. These remains were later cremated by Japanese authorities and the ashes returned to their homeland.

What next for HDML 1321

HDML 1321 continued to serve in New Guinea throughout the remainder of 1945, punctuated by brief visits to Townsville and Brisbane. She was next lent to the Northern Territory Administration until 1951. Upon return to Sydney she was attached to the naval base HMAS Rushcutter, reclassified as a Seaward Defence Motor Launch (SDML 1321), used for RANR and Naval Cadet training. In common with other attached vessel in 1953 she assumed the name of her parent establishment, confusingly also becoming HMAS Rushcutter. She decommissioned in 1970 and in August 1971 was sold for $14,200 to private owners who converted her into a cruise launch named MV Rushcutter.

In 2006 Rushcutter was purchased by the eccentric mother and daughter team of devoted maritime enthusiasts, Wendy and Tracey Geddes. They took her to Nhulunbuy, NT where she was painstakingly refurbished over three years at a cost of about $150,000 as a cruise and dive craft. In her new role she was based at Darwin.

A survey of the 73 year old vessel was carried out in early 2016 revealing the hull to be in excellent condition and the original two American-made six cylinder Buda-Lanova (later generations know these as Allis-Chalmers) diesel engines still functioning, although one was slightly down on power due to wear of the original cylinder liners.

Thinking of retirement, in 2016 the Geddes put their baby up for sale. In April a small group of prospective buyers travelled to Darwin to inspect the boat. Apparently these were ISIS sympathisers who were trying to find a suitable vessel to travel to the Middle East. As the Federal Police got wind of this the sale fell through.

Finally came the tragic accidental sinking of Rushcutter at her moorings in Darwin’s small boat anchorage on 19 October 2016. She was subsequently raised a month later on 20 November. Now needing much more love and attention which her owners cannot afford, her fate is uncertain. Would not this historic vessel, the last of her type in Australia, make an important contribution to a maritime museum?

In a Parliamentary speech on 22 November 2016, Luke Gosling, the Federal Member for Solomon (Darwin metropolitan area) addressed the need for the restoration of this important historic vessel. He thanked the Darwin Port Authority and Bhagwan Marine for helping refloat Rushcutter and for the assistance of the Paspaley Pearl Group in providing hard-standing for potential restoration. He also thanked local volunteers including Ambrose Palmer, son of her former captain.

Our latest information (February 2017) is that the Geddes family have generously sold HDML 1321 to a Darwin based committee ‘Save Motor Launch 1321 Inc.’ for the princely sum of $2. It should have been $1 but no one could produce a $1 coin at the time of the transaction. The committee, chaired by Vikki McLeod, who is an Army reservist engineer and on the board of the Darwin Military Museum (DMM), aims to carry out the difficult task of recovering and restoring the ship to her wartime condition and then putting her on display at the DMM.

Notes:

  1. There are difficulties in estimating the total number of Japanese forces fighting on the mainland of New Guinea over the period of the conflict. After the war Major General Kane Yoshiwara, General Adachi’s chief-of-staff, gave the maximum strength of the 18th IJA as 105,000, which had shrunk to 54,000 by March 1944. Many more perished during the final retreat towards Wewak, leaving about 13,000 at the time when General Adachi surrendered his forces. General Adachi, an honourable man who accepted responsibility, before taking his own life, wrote: “During the past three years operations more than 100,000 youthful and promising officers and men were lost and most died of malnutrition”.

 References

Dennis, Don, Guns of Muschu –Eight Men went in – only one Returned. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 2006.

Dexter, David, Australia in the War of 1939-1945, Series One: Army, Volume VI – The New Guinea Offensive. Canberra, Australian War Memorial, 1961.

Evans, Peter & Thompson, Richard (Eds.), Fairmile Ships of the Royal Australian Navy, Volumes I & II. Sydney, Australian Military History Publishers, 2005.

Gill, Hermon G., Australia in the War of 1939-1945, Series Two: Navy, Volume II – Royal Australian Navy 1942-1945. Canberra, Australian War Memorial, 1968.

Henderson, Robert, Beautiful Muschu Island – Japanese Hell, viewed 23 December 2016, http://www.writing.com/main/view_item/item_id/1573388-Beautiful-Muschu-Japanese-Hell.

History of HDML 1321, Seapower Centre, Canberra, viewed 08 December 2016, http://www.navy.gov.au/hdml-1321.

Hordern, Marsden, A Merciful Journey – Reflections of a World War II Patrol Boat Man. Melbourne, Miegunyah Press, 2005.

Johnston, Vanessa, Remembering the War in New Guinea – Summary of the Experiences of Naval Surgeon Tetsuo Watanabe. Canberra, Australian War Memorial, viewed 08 December 2016, http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/AJRP/remember.nsf.

Report of Proceedings HDML 1321 and ML 805 August/September 1945. Canberra, Australian War Memorial.

Watanabe, Tetsuo, The Naval Land Unit that Vanished in the Jungle, first published in Japanese 1982 with English translation by Hiromitsu Iwamoto. Canberra, Tabletop Press, 1995.

Watters, David, Stitches in Time – Two Centuries of Surgery in Papua New Guinea. Sydney, Alibris Corporation, 2011.

Worledge, G. Ron (Ed.), Contact – HMAS Rushcutter & Australia’s Submarine Hunters 1939-1946. Sydney, The Anti-Submarine Warfare Officers’ Association, 1994.

The Australian – Indian Relationship – Part 3

Previous editions of this magazine examined the Australian – Indian relationship from the establishment of the first Australian colony in 1788 to the conclusion of the Second World War. This article completes the series, discussing the continuing relationship with an independent Indian Republic.

Background to Independence

India after partition

In the early part of the 20th century the wave of feeling against British rule in India was increasing, as were growing demands for independence. Nowhere was this more evident than in Bengal, which was seething with nationalist fervour since the 1905 partition of this state.

In London on 1 July 1909 a 22 year old engineering student, Madan Lal Dhingra, fired five shots into Sir Curzon Wyllie, the Aide-de-Camp to the Secretary of State for India, Lord Morley. Dhingra was arrested immediately, tried and hanged within six weeks of the tragic event. Dhingra became the first Indian nationalist to become a martyr on British soil, inspiring other revolutionaries. Later in November 1909, the Viceroy Lord Minto and his wife survived an assassination attempt when two bombs were thrown at their carriage during a tour of the western city of Ahmadabad.

By 1911 the capital was moved from Calcutta to Delhi as the political climate in Bengal was too dangerous for secure government. In 1912 when the new Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, entered Delhi on an elephant he was injured in a bomb attack. The advent of two world wars in which the supply of Indian troops was critical to the Allies helped reduce some tensions, but during the latter stages of WWII it was becoming obvious that home rule was inevitable throughout the subcontinent.

Partition

Granting independence to such a huge and diverse entity as the Indian Empire was an enormous challenge. Under Imperial rule the minority Muslims generally enjoyed a protected status and in return provided military manpower and support in the maintenance of law and order. While a federation of Hindu and Muslim states was favoured this was not agreed to by the dominant political parties. Unwilling to become involved in a protracted impasse the new British Labour Government, which favoured home rule, agreed to partition. While this needed to be handled with the greatest care to avoid further unrest, turmoil and potential bloodshed, it was rather hastily conceived. Because of entrenched sectarian rivalries, partition of Hindu and Muslim communities was seen as the only way for them to move forward to nationhood.

The Indian Independence Act 1947 received royal assent on 18 July 1947; Pakistan came into being on 14 August and India on 15 August 1947. Partition that year possibly saw the largest movement of population in history when about 15 million refugees crossed the borders between India and Pakistan, with Hindus and Sikhs crossing from Pakistan to India and Muslims from India to Pakistan, amid fears of becoming disadvantaged minorities in their traditional homelands.

At midnight on 14 August 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of independent India, gave a famous speech which hailed the country’s decades-long, non-violent campaign against British rule:

At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.

The swiftness of partition surprised many including local Hindu and Muslim leaders and it did not proceed smoothly. Partition created an atmosphere of hostility which broke out into unrest, violence and many thousands of deaths. The aftermath remains evident to this day.

Mahatma Gandhi with Lord & Lady Mountbatten 1947

An Independent Stance

While not yet independent in 1945 India, in common with Australia, became a founding member of the United Nations. The new India sought to distance itself from a colonial past as a non-aligned neutral nation not beholden to either the United States (West Block) or the Soviet Union (East Block). India became a well respected member of the non-alignment movement, with Nehru standing tall beside such other leaders as Tito of Yugoslavia, Sukarno of Indonesia and Nasser of Egypt. Cordial relations between India and the Soviet Union began in the early 1950s as the Soviet Union attempted to foster closer relationships with emerging nations.

The Soviets provided substantial economic and military assistance to India which outstripped aid being given to China where in 1960 there was a split in the Sino-Soviet relationship. In 1962, a technology transfer was agreed which allowed India to produce the advanced MIG-21 jet fighter aircraft. In 1965 the Soviet Union successfully brokered a peace agreement between India and Pakistan following their first border war over Kashmir.

The Cold War, which extended from 1947 with heightened tensions between Eastern Bloc and Western Bloc powers, continued until 1991 when communism collapsed in Eastern Europe. This resulted in a significant realignment of national allegiances. With greater political freedom came growth in many economies including those of India, China and the wider Asian region.

With independence came demands for other colonial powers, namely France and Portugal, to relinquish their remaining small enclaves on the subcontinent. France gradually withdrew from her possessions and returned them to new government between 1947 and 1962. Portugal, which had held colonies at Goa, Diu and Damo since 1510 was more resistant to change. On 18 December 1961 a superior Indian force invaded the Portuguese enclaves and after a short battle they reverted to Indian sovereignty.

The Independence Mix

Post war development of India cannot be considered in isolation from a number of nation/states which forged the rich history of the subcontinent.

Pakistan

Pakistan started with difficulty as a nation divided into East and West. West Pakistan is a homogeneous entity but adding East Bengal (later East Pakistan) which was separated by 2200 km of Indian territory, with no direct link between the two, would always present problems. While the majority of East Bengalis were Muslims, they had a different history and spoke a different language to those in West Pakistan. Believing they were disadvantaged by the union in 1971 a civil war broke out in East Pakistan which was supported by India. This resulted in the secession of East Pakistan, then becoming the new country of Bangladesh.

Control of the 2430 km contiguous border region between Pakistan and Afghanistan has been a contentious flash point fought over for centuries. As Australian troops now know, entry into this area is at great peril. The fragility of the relationship between the two nuclear-armed states of India and Pakistan is one of the most difficult military and political dilemmas facing the world today.

Muhammed Ali Jinnah the founder of Pakistan with Lord & Lady Mountbatten

Kashmir

What is now generally known as Kashmir is a disputed region of 225,000 km2with 13 million people claimed in part by India (45%), Pakistan (38%) and China (17%). This region, nearly the size of the United Kingdom, is mountainous and often inhospitable but other parts are extremely fertile and famed for their beauty.

India administers Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan administers Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Balitstan, and China administers Aksai Chin and the Trans Karakoram Tract. While the dispute has deep-rooted ethnic, religious and historical origins, at the time of independence the population was predominately Muslin. It was therefore assumed that Kashmir would become part of Pakistan. However the Hindu ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, sided with India and sought the assistance of Indian troops in maintaining the status quo. This then led to the continuing conflict which has been ongoing for 70 years, and a number of times flaring into open warfare with no sign of resolution.

Bangladesh

In 1971 the former East Pakistan began a program to secede from West Pakistan and establish a new state of Bangladesh. The Soviet Union again came to the aid of India signing an Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation which effectively kept the Chinese out of the conflict and ensured victory for the secessionists.

Bangladesh not only shares a border with India but with a number of less stable nation/states and Myanmar. The country, already over populated, is being obliged to accept Muslim refugees from neighbouring Myanmar, causing further tensions.

Ceylon

No discussion on the subcontinent is complete without acknowledging this magnificent island nation lying less than twenty miles from southern Indian shores. The crown colony of Ceylon received independence on 4 February 1948. The early transition was not smooth, with a Marxist inspired insurrection only put down by a unique British, Soviet and Indian aid package.

In 1972 the country’s name was changed to Sri Lanka which then became a republic. Further unrest between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamil, who were supported by Tamils from southern India, broke out into a long-running civil war which was not brought under control until the Tamils were defeated in 2009. The nation is now better unified and enjoying prosperity.

The Australian Relationship – Migration

Migration from India was curtailed after the Australian Government introduced the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 which formed the basis of the White Australia Policy. Nothing much changed until after the Second World War when Australia welcomed migration to satisfy labour demands in a flourishing industrial era.

Following India’s independence in 1947 a large number of Indian-born British citizens migrated to Australia, together with those of other mixed European-Indian backgrounds. There are now over 500,000 persons claiming Indian ancestry, making them one of the fastest growing communities in Australia today. In addition there are about 60,000 Fijians with Indian ancestry now residing in Australia and about 100,000 Indian students are temporary residents.

Increased Economic Ties

Giving some indication of the past trading dominance emanating from India is a study of its currency, the venerable Indian rupee. Until the late 1950s the rupee was a common form of currency not only used in the subcontinent and adjoining nations but also in East Africa, the Gulf States, Malaysia and Indonesia. For a time in the early 1800s the rupee was also introduced into New South Wales.

Economic ties between India and Australia have grown significantly since the early 1990s when the Indian Government liberalised trade barriers and foreign investment controls. These now mainly relate to the export of Australian coal and other raw materials which include gold, plus the supply of educational services to Indian students. An agreement has recently been made to export Australian uranium to support India’s nuclear program, with the first shipments of this strategically important material made in July 2017. The relationship is skewed in Australia’s favour, with India providing manufactured goods and outsourced professional services.

Australia’s major trading partners are in Asia. In 2016 these amounted to about 70% of exports and 60% of imports, all crossing the Pacific to Asia and North America. By contrast the amount crossing the Indian Ocean is much reduced to about 15% of exports and 20% imports. The Indian economy is expanding at a far greater rate than most other Asian countries, requiring increased raw materials likely to favour Australian trade.

An ongoing saga about providing rail and port infrastructure to the Indian-owned Adani Carmichael coal mines in Queensland is proving a difficult political quandary. In 2017 it was announced that the Indian-owned, but British based, CFC Alliance, had bailed out the struggling Australian steelmaker and mining group Arrium, securing the jobs of more than 5500 workers.

During the 21st century India became the call-centre capital of the world. Its vast pool of English speaking, technologically literate, highly educated and inexpensive graduates led international companies to move here and adopt an outsourcing model. What started as multinationals reducing costs by exploiting Indian skills has now allowed the country to enter the digital age well prepared to adopt enhanced technology and electronic communications. On the lighter side the impact of Bollywood on a younger demographic should not be underestimated as it places India very much at the forefront of an important communications and entertainment industry.

Political Changes

The conservative nature of mainstream Australian politics has remained fairly constant since WWII. Those of the subcontinent have changed dramatically from the Nehru-Gandhi dynastic rule of the socialist Congress Party which dominated the political scene from Independence. With increased economic prosperity, the Congress Party has gradually lost support and in 2014 it was replaced in a landslide win by Narendra Modi and his progressive, right leaning, Bharatiya Janata Party.

In Insight Magazine of 07 April 2017 Simon Finch provides an illuminating summary when he says: India’s Prime Minister, Narenda Modi, has been the driving force behind the ‘Make India Great Again’ campaign. The world’s fastest growing major economy, its 1.3 billion citizens are among the most entrepreneurial on the planet, facilitated by 65% of the demographic being less than 35 years old. The Prime Minister is intent on driving out corruption and pushing through reforms across all sectors, seeking to improve the lives of Indians. All this is based on the structurally sound fundamental of India’s long history of a stable bureaucracy supported by its legal framework.

Australia understands this change of dynamics and has worked with the Indian Government in developing a closer relationship. India on the other hand has from Independence developed strong ideals of regional autonomy which are now being questioned as it seeks to balance its position as an emerging regional power.

Military Awareness

The South Asian region is dominated by India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. It is unfortunate that relationships between the two major contributors to the stability of this region are not harmonious. In expanding its own leading role and influence India comes into conflict with China. Chinese commercial ties have permitted it to build strategically placed major infrastructure projects, giving access to expanding Chinese naval and military ambitions. The so called ‘String of Pearls’ is an integration of air and naval bases extending from southern China and disputed territory in the South China Sea through Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Pakistan to the Persian Gulf (Oman) and the Red Sea (Djibouti).  Strategic links almost mirror that of past European colonial power.

With Australia and India having shared operational experiences in both world wars, it is perhaps surprising that there has been very limited defence contact other than via low key military exercises and a small number of exchange postings. The potential for further development is perhaps hindered by Australia’s heavy reliance on United States security and its unquestioning support of American political initiatives in the Indian-Pacific region. Australia’s continued involvement in Afghanistan is questionable when looked at from an Indian perspective.

India’s development of a nuclear deterrence capability has been of concern to Australia and after weapons testing by India in 1998 the relationship reached a low point when Australia imposed sanctions and withdrew its defence attaché from New Delhi. India accused Australia of hypocrisy as the security of the Southern Continent is largely guaranteed by an American nuclear shield.

When tempers cooled Prime Minister John Howard visited New Delhi in 2000. Since then every Australian prime minister has made the same pilgrimage with the most recent by Malcolm Turnbull in April 2017. These efforts have paid handsome dividends. In 2009 the Governments of India and Australia committed to a Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation that will strengthen cooperation in a wide range of security and related areas including counter-terrorism, defence, disarmament and no-proliferation and maritime security. A wider based Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QSD), initiated in 2007 by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, was formed between Australia, India, Japan and the United States which might be interpreted as an effort to balance Chinese regional dominance. The QSD ceased following Australia’s withdrawal under a very pro-Chinese Rudd Government. With a change of leadership under the Gillard Government the QSD resumed. It last met in New Delhi in January 2018 and was attended by their respective naval chiefs.

The opportunities for Australian-Indian security cooperation are particularly strong in the maritime domain. Successful humanitarian assistance and disaster relief was provided in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and joint naval exercises were held in the Bay of Bengal in 2007 and again in 2015, and off the Western Australian coast in June 2017. The first joint Army exercise is planned in 2018. The value of these growing initiatives has to be carefully managed and measured against potential negative outcomes to the substantial Sino-Australian relationship.

Summary

For the first half-millennium, since the rise of the Portuguese seaborne empire in the late 15th century, the world has been dominated by western empires. Japan was the only non-western nation to emerge as a global power, but it did so not by challenging the West but, at least initially, by joining it.

Five hundred years later the future of Western democracy is changing, with a questionable decline in American and Russian leadership and a re-emergence of China as a dominant power. A new power historically, culturally and philosophically opposed to Western characteristics. Enter the 21st Century – the Asian Century. Is this now India’s opportunity to also take its place as an economic powerhouse and perhaps lessen Australia’s over-dependence on trade with another single great Asian power? And if so, how does this affect the forging of a stronger Australian-Indian relationship?

 

 

Australian – Indian Relationship: Part 1

 This is the first of a three part series covering the Australian-Indian relationship.

Australians fought alongside Indian troops in two world wars, but what do we know about them? Both our nations have similar colonial pasts but have taken different paths to self determination. We have not grown particularly close or achieved any cultural level of sophisticated understanding. This is perhaps a pity as India is currently the second most populated country on our planet and is expected to surpass China within the next decade to become the largest. Its industrial base is expanding and will become important economically to the rest of the world. India is therefore on the threshold of becoming one of the most influential of nations, and her decision-making is likely to impact our national defence and control of the Indian Ocean. Looking ahead we may also note that one of the fastest growing migrant groups now calling Australia home come from the Indian Sub Continent.

Colonial Period

Relations with the early Australian colonies and British India were closer over two centuries past than they are today. India, at the very centre of British colonial power, provided administrative and military support over much of central Asia and even into the Pacific. In September 1790, William Grenville, Secretary of State for the Home Department, had written to the Governor-General of India, Lord Cornwallis, saying that a transport of the Third Fleet would be sent to Calcutta to obtain provisions after unloading its convicts in Sydney, as this would be cheaper than supplying New South Wales from England or the Cape of Good Hope. And so when the infant colony of New South Wales, in its fourth year, was starving when the supply ship Guardian sank off the Cape, it was to Calcutta that Governor Phillip turned for aid, dispatching the ship Atlantic to bring back all the food and stores she could carry.On her return voyage Atlantic was the first ship to come to the Colony from India, arriving at Port Jackson on 20 June 1792.

In November 1796, Campbell, Clark & Company of Calcutta sent a ship, which they had renamed Sydney Cove, with a speculative cargo of general merchandise and 7,000 gallons of spirits to Port Jackson. Traversing around the western coast of New Holland the ship encountered severe gales and was wrecked on Preservation Island off the north coast of Van Diemen’s Land. Taking a longboat, three survivors eventually reached Port Jackson and a salvage mission was undertaken to rescue the remainder of her crew plus the valuable cargo. Undeterred by this setback, the company fitted out another ship, the Hunter (named after the then Governor of NSW), with an assortment of Indian goods which arrived in Sydney in June 1798. A representative of the company, Robert Campbell, was so impressed by the trading prospects that he invested in a house and land on the west side of Sydney Cove where he established a wharf and warehouses. On the proceeds of the Australian-Indian trade, Robert Campbell became one of the new colony’s richest merchants.

The aforementioned Sydney Cove adventure was remarkable as the long boat too was wrecked when attempting a landing on what is now southeast Victoria. Her crew then spent nine weeks walking coastal tracks making for Sydney Cove. They were helped by Aboriginal tribes during this ordeal. This is likely to be the first encounter between indigenous people from the Australian continent and the Indian sub-continent, noting that the majority of Sydney Cove’s crew were native Bengalis. This Anglo-Indian seafaring party also established the first overland route between New South Wales and what was to become Victoria.

The first Anglican Church in New South Wales reported through the Bishops of Calcutta. Royal Navy ships in New South Wales waters formed part of the East Indies Station, with its admiral headquartered in a grand residence at Trincomalee, one of the world’s finest deep-water harbours, on the east coast of Ceylon. British regiments serving in the Australian colonies were sent on lengthy commissions of ten or more years which usually rotated between tropical and temperate climates, with temperate NSW being much healthier than disease prone Bengal.

A vivid description of the interaction between colonial NSW and India is found in a wonderful volume by Broadbent, Rickard and Steven (1) which tells us that until 1850 Australia’s most immediate links were with India rather than London, as chaplains, judges, bureaucrats, merchant and convicts moved between the two colonies. By 1840 a ship was leaving for, or arriving at, Sydney from India roughly every four days as Calcutta merchants scrambled to supply and profit from the new outpost. At a price, every form of luxury was available and, in return, NSW supplied coal and ‘walers’ (rugged colonial bred horses) for the Indian Army. In the days of sail the Sydney settlement was very remote from the succour of the mother country, by comparison a voyage to Calcutta was less than half this distance.

Low tide, Customs House Calcutta 1865

Calcutta had grown from being the fortified headquarters of the British East India Company to become the City of Palaces. It was the biggest, richest and most elegant colonial city in the Orient. Australian girls from wealthy families would go to finishing school here, to find suitable husbands without the stain of criminal backgrounds. A stream of retired colonials, some with Anglo-Indian offspring, came to call Australia home.

The Australian colonies underwent an exceptional phase of development following the gold rushes of the 1850s. With this, trade and industry developed, especially with Europe and America, to the detriment of the Australian-Indian relationship which never recovered.

Another small but lasting form of relationship occurred in 1846 when the first Afghan camel was imported as a trial in helping to cross an inhospitable hinterland. This proved successful and in 1860 three Afghan cameleers with 24 of their ‘ships of the desert’ landed in Melbourne to assist in the Burke and Wills expedition. Their offspring (the camels) thrived and are now found in abundance in the outback.

To place India’s importance to the Crown into perspective it is interesting to relate to the words of Lord Curzon, perhaps the greatest of all Viceroys, a brilliant scholar who had travelled widely throughout the East. In 1891, when Parliamentary Under-Secretary for India, he wrote: As long as we rule India, we are the greatest power in the world. If we lose it, we shall drop away to be a third rate power.

The Indian Mutiny

The Indian Mutiny was a rebellion against the rule of the British East India Company (BEIC) which lasted from May 1857 to July 1859 and extended over most of northern parts of the subcontinent. The reasons are many and complex, demonstrating a lack of understanding on both sides, but it arose when native soldiers rebelled against their mainly British officers and resulted in much bloodshed and reprisals. Its conclusion also saw the end of the BEIC and led to a new form of imperial government. The Army was reorganised with an increased ratio of British officers and the artillery was mainly taken back into British hands. Another historically important event was the trial and exile of the last of the once mighty Mughal Emperors, Bahadar Shah Zafar. At this stage Zafar was little more than a nominal Emperor, with most of his lands confiscated by the BEIC and minor princelings. He had however given support to the rebellion which allowed the British authorities to finally end his reign.

The First World War

The borders of the Indian sub-continent have changed dramatically since democratic self rule was proclaimed in 1947. There are the new independent countries of Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Pakistan and Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Others such as Afghanistan, Bhutan and Nepal, if nominally independent in the early 20th century, had to bend to the wishes of the Viceroy.

At the outbreak of WWI the Indian Empire was assumed to include all these nations with borders extending from Persia in the west, to Russia in the north, and Siam in the east. With the southern borders safe within seas controlled by the Royal Navy, the Dutch East Indies were the nearest maritime neighbours. India was strategically and importantly placed between the competing interests of the British and Russian empires.

Herbert Kitchener (2) was appointed Commander-in-Chief, India in 1902 and for the next seven years reformed the Army of India into a force of nine divisions, each division comprising one cavalry and three infantry brigades with one British regiment or battalion serving in each brigade. By 1914 the Indian Army was the largest volunteer force in the world comprising 240,000 men, only just short of the 247,000 men in the British regular army. At this time Australia had a population of 5 million, Great Britain 46 million (including over 4 million Irish), but India could count a multitude of 315 million.

The Indian Army, although of great size, was ill prepared for modern warfare both in training and equipment. Being largely raised for home security, it was unsuited to prolonged campaigns in cold and wet European winters. It did however see action against the German Empire in East Africa and on the European Western Front; Indian forces were sent to China and Egypt, and fought against the Ottoman Empire at Gallipoli and in Mesopotamia. Indians were also garrisoned atAden guarding the Persian Gulf, and watching Burma and the North West frontier. A popular parody of these times contained the following lines:

We don’t want to fight; but, by Jingo, if we do

We won’t go to the front ourselves, but we’ll send the mild Hindoo

There were however problems, mainly of an ethnic and religious nature as the majority of Indian troops were recruited from the more warlike and dominant Muslin northern provinces, while the remainder, and majority, of the country was predominately Hindu. The Muslims, however, were reluctant to be drawn into conflict against their Ottoman cousins. Accordingly, troops at Gallipoli were mainly Ghurkhas and Sikhs.

Australia had about 20,000 mainly volunteer troops at Gallipoli, many with limited experience and training. India had by comparison 15,000 professional troops comprising one infantry brigade, one mountain artillery brigade and a mule transport corps. The 600 men strong Mule Corps with their 1,000 plus mules were said to be the unsung heroes of Gallipoli as without them the Anzacs and many others would not have been able to hold on for as long as they did.

Sergant Major of the Indian Mule Corps at Gaba Tepe – AWM

An uprising occurred in February 1915, known as the ‘Singapore Mutiny’, where up to half the 850 strong Indian 5th Light Infantry Regiment mutinied following rumours they were being shipped to the Middle East to fight against fellow Muslims. This regiment had been entrusted with guarding prisoners from the German cruiser Emden recently sunk by HMAS Sydney. The German prisoners did not join the mutiny which was eventually quashed by British forces aided by naval detachments from allied warships. Regardless of these problems, which were relatively minor to overall operations, Britain could not have sustained a campaign of these dimensions during WWI without the aid of Indian troops.

Calcutta fades into Kolkata

Somewhat similar to the Australian experience, in 1911, it was decided to move the national capital from the eastern seaboard city of Calcutta to a central inland site. Work commenced in earnest after WWI withgreat administrative buildings constructed with the new capital of the Raj inaugurated at New Delhi in 1931. Glorious Calcutta, once the second city of the British Empire, and for more than fifty years the second home of many Australian colonists, begins to fade. The city is now known as Kolkata.

Political Instability

Political elections were held during 1936-37 covering eleven Indian provinces which resulted in the Indian National Congress (INC) under Jawahaial Nehru winning power in eight provinces and the remaining three provinces falling to the All-India Muslim League (AIML) under Muhammad Ali Jinnah. After the elections the Muslim League offered to form a coalition with Congress which was rejected in favour of a single majority party government.

The Congress ministers resigned in November 1939, in protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow’s (3) declaration of India as a belligerent in the war against Germany on 3 September 1939, without consulting the Indian people. With the advent of war the stage was set for a political upheaval which would not be resolved until well after the war had ended.

Mahatma Gandhi

No analysis of modern Indian history is complete without mention of that great thorn in the side of officialdom, Mahatma Gandhi, whispering words of wisdom. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948) was born to an elite merchant family living on the west coast of India. He was sent to England to study law and after being admitted to the Bar returned home and set up a practice in Bombay. Shortly afterwards he took a post with an Indian company in South Africa where he was to spend the next 21 years. Here he suffered racial discrimination and, became conscious of the great divide between the two classes of Indians; his wealthy Muslim clients and the impoverished Hindu indentured labourers whom he supported.

During the Boer War Gandhi favoured Britain and formed a respected 1,100 strong volunteer Natal Indian Ambulance Corps. But even under British rule there was little improvement in the plight of Indians living in South Africa. His campaign of civil rights advocating nonviolent civil disobedience brought him into conflict with authorities, leading to his imprisonment. However his charismatic charm brought many admirers including the revolutionary Jan Smuts (later Governor-General of South Africa) who visited Gandhi in goal where they discussed philosophy. Before returning to his homeland in 1915 Gandhi was given the honorific title ‘Mahatma’, meaning high-soul or venerable.

Back in India Gandhi set about organising the lower classes in protest against excessive taxes and discrimination. He assumed leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921 and challenged British authority seeking self-rule for the indigenous community. Gandhi led by example, livingly modestly and dressed in simple traditional clothes associated with the poor. Again he was imprisoned as his passive resistance was seen as subversive to the war effort. After attaining his life’s ambition, witnessing self-rule and the tragedy of partition, he was assassinated by a dissident. His gift to humanity was freedom for oppressed people, paid in part by his own martyrdom.

To be continued – Part 2 of this story, mainly covering the important contribution made by Indian forces during WWII when they often fought alongside Australian troops, will be included in the next edition of this magazine.

Notes:

1 Broadbent, James, Rickard, Suzanne & Steven, Margaret, India, China, Australia: Trade and Society 1788-1850, Sydney: Historic Houses Trust NSW, 2003.

2 Field Marshall Lord Horatio Herbert Kitchener, WWISecretary of State for War responsible for recruitment (Your Country Needs You) and material production. He died on 5 June 1916, in HMS Hampshireafter the ship sank on striking a German mine, en route to Russia where he sought to encourage greater participation in the war effort.

3 Victor Alexander John Hope, Marquess of Linlithgow, a well-educated ex-army officer and conservative politician. He was first offered the governor-generalship of Australia but turned this down and in 1936 became Governor-General of India, a position he held until 1943, becoming the longest serving in the history of the Raj. His father, when Earl of Hopetoun, was Governor of Victoria and then the first Governor-General of Australia.

 

 

 

Occasional Paper 11: The Remarkable Short Life of HMAS Nestor, The Ship That Never Came Home

July 2017

The following address was delivered Commander Walter Burroughs RAN Rtd during the 75th anniversary ceremony conducted by the RAN on Garden Island, Sydney 16 June 2017.

I am honoured to give this address commemorating the loss of HMAS Nestor, together with four of her gallant crew, exactly 75 years ago on 16 June 1942.

The importance of the “N-class”

I first came into contact with the formidable “N Class Association” through a chance meeting with Mrs Jennifer Cook. Jenny was the wife of the late Captain Bill Cook. Bill, one of our youngest destroyer captains, earned his spurs, first as XO, and then CO, of HMAS Nizam.

At this social gathering, my lack of knowledge of the N-class brought howls of derision from the glamorous Jenny, who made it her mission to insure I knew the importance of these ships in the naval hierarchy.  Suitably admonished this encouraged me to further research, and to become wary of sweet older ladies, with excellent memories of ships past.

With war clouds looming in the late 1930s Great Britain went into a phase of rapid rearmament. With a shortage of destroyers there was a need to increase production using simpler designs.

This was the genesis for 24 ships built in three batches known as the “J, K & N’s”. They were fine fighting units but suffered from limited fuel supplies reducing their effective range, and the significant main armament of six 4.7-inch guns was flawed in the anti-aircraft role, being limited to 40 degrees elevation. Later improvements were made removing the after torpedo tubes and installing a high-angle 4-inch gun and, the half-inch Vickers machine guns were replaced by larger calibre, 20 mm Oerlikons.

HMAS Nestor

Nestor, the third of her class was built along with her destroyer leader Napier, at Fairfield’s Clydeside yard. HMAS Nestor was commissioned on 3 February 1941 by Commander George Stewart, RAN. This must have been an exciting if cold and miserable time for most of her inexperienced crew. Many of these young men were reservists and few had seen action.

After three weeks of trials Nestor sailed from Greenock for the Royal Navy’s northern base situated at Scapa Flow, one of the bleakest spots in the kingdom. It did not disappoint as they arrived to a reception of snow and ice. However, they were enthusiastically greeted by the Rear Admiral (Destroyers) Sir Louis Hamilton. The work-up was brief and they were soon escorting convoys to Iceland.

Nestor was one of four destroyers accompanying the 18th Cruiser Squadron far into the Arctic Circle, to 72 degrees north, to intercept the German weather ship Munchen. This small ship with her crew was captured intact, most importantly with her code books. With code books secured by a mystery man from Naval Intelligence, Nestor was despatched at full speed to Scapa, with the mystery man flown to London for Bletchley Park to help break the Enigma code.

A few days after this successful cloak and dagger episode, and only three months into the commission, “Big Bill” Stewart was relieved of his command. There were disciplinary concerns, brought about by heavy drinking. The ship’s Medical Officer, the remarkable 25 year old reservist Surgeon Lieutenant Shane Watson, was prevailed upon to go ashore and apprise the Flag Officer of the situation. Marines were sent to remove three senior officers for court martial.

As a temporary measure the Captain of the depot ship HMS Tyne took command with a new First Lieutenant, Lieutenant George Crowley, RN appointed. A week later Commander Alvord Rosenthal, RAN assumed command of Nestor. Rosenthal, an experienced destroyer captain, had been standing by to take command of HMAS Norman. There were no further incidents and the crew, who were not disciplined, displayed restraint and worked enthusiastically under the new command.

With troubles behind them, Nestor sailed with the Home Fleet to “Hunt the Bismark” which had just sunk HMS Hood with devastating loss of life. While the bigger ships, the battleship King George V, the carrier Victorious and four cruisers ploughed on and eventually cornered their quarry, Nestor and five other destroyers, were obliged to retire to Iceland to refuel.

In company with four destroyers Nestor next escorted the battleship Nelson to Gibraltar to join Admiral Somerville’s Force “H”.  Somerville had the finest ships the navy could provide. They were charged with convoying seven large and fast armed merchantmen taking essential supplies to the starving Maltese garrison.  The convoy sailed from Gibraltar, under cover of darkness and fog, in the early hours of 21 July. In reduced visibility the troopship Leinster ran aground and was left behind.

The following day, they were discovered by Italian submarines with two torpedos passing under Nestor and narrowly missing Renown. Off Sardinia, they were fiercely attacked by high level bombers and then torpedo bombers but with its immense firepower, only one destroyer was sunk and one cruiser and another destroyer retired damaged, but the merchantmen remained intact. With the worse onslaught thought to be over and coming within range of air coverage from Malta, after dark the heavy ships turned back for Gibraltar.

However, later that night they were again attacked, by Italian E-Boats, and one of the convoy, Sydney Star, with 500 troops aboard fell astern. Nestor was dispatched and found the ship had been hit by torpedo and gunfire and was in danger of sinking. In darkness a boat transfer would take forever, so at 3 am Nestor secured alongside Sydney Star and within one hour took off all non-essential personnel. Nestor, now with 774 souls on board, lead the stricken ship and, subject to more air attacks, eventually made Malta. In helping save Malta, Commander Rosenthal was awarded his first DSO.

Back to Gib, and then more convoy duty to West Africa. On departing Bathurst in Gambia, Nestor prosecuted a suspected submarine contact. However she suffered accidental damage when one of her depth charges detonated prematurely. This necessitated returning to Plymouth for repairs. It was then back up north to the Clyde where Nestor was joined by her recently commissioned sister Norman.

On 15 December when off Cape St Vincent a submarine was sighted on the surface. They closed and opened fire from A & B turrets before the target submerged. She then made asdic contact and attacked with depth charges, afterwards oil and debris was seen on the surface. Nestor is credited with sinking submarine U-127, earning “Rosie” a Bar to his DSO. And who could forget the “Schoolie” Richard (Dick) Fennessy the master of plotting tables who once he found a target could not be shaken off – for his efforts Dick received a DSC.

After her submarine adventure Nestor sailed for Malta arriving on Christmas Eve. It was onwards to Alexandria where she met her sisters Napier and Nizam. The three “N’s” transited the Canal then escorted the carrier Indomitable with 50 Hurricanes, reinforcements for the Malayan campaign.  The Fleet then assembled at Trincomalee expecting to meet a full-scale Japanese attack.  They were joined by Norman in February. Their numbers were severely depleted with the loss to Japanese air attacks of the carrier HMS Hermes and her escorting destroyer HMAS Vampire. In April all four “N’s” returned to the Med.

Another operation was undertaken aimed at escorting eleven merchant ships through to Malta from the east. This was a risky operation with heavy losses anticipated while transiting “Bomb Alley” between Egypt and Crete.

On 15 June 1942 there was no doubt about Nestor’s ability but her luck ran out when she was straddled and crippled by three 1000 pound bombs during a high level air attack. Two bombs exploded almost simultaneously falling within feet on either side of the ship and the third near her stern. The impact practically blew her out of the water and broke her back. She was holed amidships with water flooding into No 1 Boiler Room. The Boiler Room was in semi darkness and filling with oily water and dangerous super-heated steam cascading everywhere. This did not stop the ship’s Medical Officer, the indomitable Shane Watson, from entering the Boiler Room. He helped recover all four men but none could be revived. Nestor was taken under tow but the next day the decision was made to transfer her ship’s company to HMS Javelin and confine the sinking ship to the deep.  For his courageous efforts Surgeon Lieutenant Watson was awarded the DSC.

 

HMAS Nestor lived the life of the Greek hero whose name she proudly bore. She had a short life measured in months rather than years. During some of the darkest days of WWII she was always to be found near the centre of action. She fought gallantly alongside such famous ships as Ark Royal, Nelson and Renown and was never found wanting. Nestor was of course unique being the only Australian warship never to sail in Australian waters.

When HMS Javelin reached Alexandria the Nestor survivors were disembarked and most drafted to other destroyers. Lieutenant Crowley, was awarded the DSC and posted as First Lieutenant of HMAS Norman, he later rose to flag rank.

Today we remember and commemorate the loss of HMAS Nestor and pay tribute to those of her ship’s company who lost their lives. These brave young men endured the winter treachery of the North Atlantic, the fierce ordeals of incessant warfare in the Mediterranean and, the uncertainties of entering into the Indian Ocean where the enemy had swept all before them.  Let us remember:

Stoker Petty Officer Jack Brown Bulmer, of Penguin TAS – aged 28

Leading Stoker Campbell Hill, of Coolgarde WA – aged 24

Leading Stoker Mathew Burns, of the Royal Navy

And, Stoker Leslie Blight of Pingelly WA – aged just 19.

May they rest in peace.

THANK YOU

HMAS Nestor in North Atlantic 1941, NHSA Image
HMAS Nestor scuttling depth charges explode, AWM Image: 106670

The Ship that Started the Second World War

By Walter Burroughs

In September 2016 the author was a passenger on a cruise ship which berthed at the Baltic port of Gdansk in almost the same position as a German battleship had seventy-seven years earlier – a warship that fired the first shots signifying the start of the Second World War. On a green mound above the berth and once the site of a fort shelled by the battleship now stands a poignant monument to the wartime sacrifices of the Polish people.

As dawn broke on the first day of September 1939 German forces began an assault on Poland which culminated a little over a month later in the total subversion of that country. Germany having failed to respond to requests to withdraw its forces, Britain and France coming to the aid of their Polish ally, declared war upon Germany.

In Australia two days later, on a quiet Sunday morning, Prime Minister Robert Menzies broadcast to the nation choosing the following words: Fellow Australians, it is my melancholy duty to inform you officially, that in consequence of persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her and that, as a result, Australia is also at war.Thus began our nation’s involvement in what would become the deadliest conflict in known history. But how did it all start?

Poland has had a tumultuous history with its fertile plains subject to many invasions and border disputes. As its national boundaries changed many times it is ethnically diverse with a population mainly of Polish, German and Russian origins.

Map of East and West Prussia with Danzig

In more recent times dramatic changes occurred following the First World War when, subject to the Treaty of Versailles, previous German held West Prussia largely became part of Poland and was separated from East Prussia (still retained by Germany) by a land corridor controlled by Poland. At the same time, between West and East Prussia the Free City of Danzig (later named Gdansk) was created, with the region remaining separate from Germany and Poland and under League of Nations protection. The Free City was however created to give Poland access to a major seaport and in administrative terms it came under their control.

This situation was an obvious affront to Germans and propaganda being fomented by them in the late 1930s for the freedom and unification of German peoples inflamed resentment. In 1938 Germany was able to stare down British and French opposition to ‘liberate’ its subjects from Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, and it was then only a matter of time before attention turned to Poland with its significant German speaking population.

In the immediate lead-up to this conflict, German forces now on a war footing were strategically placed within striking distance of its Polish frontier. Being aware of warmongering, Poland began a partial mobilisation of its forces. On 25 August 1939 the German battleship Schleswig-Holstein, commanded by Kapitan zur See Gustav Kleikamp, made a good-will visit to Danzig ostensibly honouring the memory of the crew of the German cruiser Magdeburg(1)which had been sunk 25 years earlier and whose dead were buried in the city. Thousands of Danzigers waved in welcome to the ship as cadets lined her decks in salute before mooring under Polish fortifications at Westerplatte. Unseen below her decks were 300 hundred heavily armed assault troops.

 Schleswig-Holstein

Launched in 1906 the 13,200 ton Schleswig-Holstein(2) was the last pre-dreadnought battleship to enter the German Navy. During WWI she saw service in the North Sea and was at the Battle of Jutland where she was damaged by enemy shell fire. Owing to her obsolescence she was one of the few major warships permitted to be retained by Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1935 she was converted to a training ship for naval cadets and her main armament reduced to 4 x 11-inch and 10 x 6-inch guns supported by a smaller number of anti-aircraft weapons.

Schleswig Holstein firing at Polish forts. Gdansk Museum

In the early hours of 01 September 1939 the battleship silently slipped her moorings and glided down stream to anchor within clear view of the Polish fort. At 04:47 when the first glimmer of daylight was observed she unleashed a bombardment upon the fort at almost point blank range. This was the signal for German forces to commence their invasion, giving rise to a new ferocious form of warfare known as ‘Blitzkrieg’ or Lightning Strike. Almost at once squadrons of Luftwaffe bombers attacked Polish airfields aiming for the destruction of aircraft before they could disperse. Next, German troops led by Panzer divisions crossed the border; other than speed their greatest asset was radio communications, allowing them to be effectively controlled.

While forbidden under treaty obligations, Polish forces had secretly reinforced the casements at Westerplatte. The fort was well defended and despite overwhelming odds from the assault troops, and an attack by Stuka dive bombers, the small Polish garrison held out for seven days. The victors were impressed by the determination of the defenders and in these early days of the war after surrender, the 200 garrison troops under command of Major Henryk Sucharaki were treated with great respect. The Polish Navy dispersed its forces to sea before they were smothered by German sea and air attacks. After dramatic escapes two of her five submarines and three of her four destroyers reached Britain. The other submarines were interned in neutral Sweden and one destroyer, in dockyard hands, was unable to leave.

Under secret protocols known as the ‘Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact’ the Soviet Union on 17 September 1939 thrust its forces along an extensive western border into beleaguered Poland, thereby sealing its fate and dividing the spoils with Germany. The war, although one sided, was not without cost. Polish casualties amounted to 66,300 dead, 133,700 wounded; 587,000 prisoners were captured by Germany and another 100,000 by the Soviet Union. Russian casualties were nominal while Germany lost 16,000 dead and 32,000 wounded. However, a total of 200,000 Polish servicemen fought in the Second World War under British command. Most important were its pilots who manned some of the RAF Fighter Command’s most successful squadrons during the Battle of Britain. Some have postulated that without the support of Polish airmen the battle could have been lost, leaving the country exposed to planned invasion.

War Ends and a New Beginning

The ship that started the war came to an ignoble end. The elderly Schleswig-Holstein was bombed and sunk by British aircraft in December 1944. She was subsequently salvaged and then beached being used as a target by the Soviet Navy.

The grand medieval Hanseatic city of Danzig (Gdansk) was extensively damaged during its ‘liberation’ towards the end of WWII. Gdansk was to claim fame as the home of Lech Walesa, the Polish shipyard worker and patriot who in 1980 co-founded the ‘Solidarity Movement’. The advent of ‘Solidarity’ confronted Soviet occupation of territories in Eastern Europe eventually leading to their return to democratic government with Walesa awarded the Nobel Peace Prize as President of the Polish Republic. In 2016 a frail Lech Walesa still resides in his beloved Gdansk.

 

Notes:

  1. SMS Magdeburg was a new light cruiser which early in WWI formed part of a squadron sent into the Baltic to bombard Russian positions. On 26 August 1914 while off the coast of Estonia she ran aground and as she could not be freed the decision was made to scuttle the ship and transfer her crew to an accompanying destroyer. While this was taking place she was discovered by two Russian cruisers who shelled the hapless ship when 15 German sailors were killed. On boarding the ship the Russians were able to salvage three German Naval code books which were in the process of being destroyed. One of these was passed to British authorities. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, called this a priceless document used to great advantage in predicting the movement of German ships including at the Battle of Jutland.

2.SMS Schleswig-Holstein was later berthed at the nearby German occupied port of Gdynia where she was attacked by RAF aircraft in December 1944 when 28 of her crew were killed. She was again attacked by RAF aircraft in March 1945 after which the burning ship was scuttled near the port. The ship was subsequently salvaged and then beached for use as a target by the Soviet Navy. Vizeadmiral Kleikamp was captured by British forces in May 1945 and served two years as a POW, he died in September 1952.

 

 

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